Top Instructional Design Learning Theories, Principles, and Models You Must Know

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instructions is one of the major learning theories that provide a step-by-step approach to designing lessons that engage learners.

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• ARCS is a motivational model that helps instructors create engaging learning environments.
• Merrill’s Principles of Instruction is a framework for designing instruction that is grounded in real-world problem-solving

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Benjamin Bloom devised Bloom’s Taxonomy and has been popularly used to write course objectives.

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Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy is a hierarchical model of learning that focuses on developing critical thinking skills.

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Situated Cognition Theory is a learning theory that emphasizes the importance of context and real-world application.

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Combining Design Thinking and ADDIE can offer you a combo of two powerful models to create truly practical learning experiences.

Play the video below to learn how design thinking and ADDIE can be combined effectively.

Discovery-based Learning is one of the student-centred learning theories that encourages exploration and discovery.

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Sociocultural Learning Theory is a model that emphasizes the importance of social and cultural context in learning.

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Elaboration Theory is a model that focuses on how to help learners develop a deeper understanding of new concepts.

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Individualized Instruction Theory is a model that emphasizes personalized learning and individualized instruction.

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Constructivist Learning Theory, introduced by Jean Piaget, emphasizes that learners build their understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences and reflection. Instead of passively absorbing information, learners actively create meaning by connecting new ideas with what they already know.

When applying constructivism in instruction, the teaching approach shifts from a traditional lecture style to a more student-centered environment. Here are a few key strategies commonly used:

• The instructor acts as a facilitator, guiding and supporting students rather than delivering content in a directive manner.
• Authority and responsibility for learning are shared equally between students and the instructor.
• Learning activities often take place in small, collaborative groups, encouraging discussion and peer learning.
• Both students and teachers contribute to—and benefit from—the exchange of knowledge in the classroom.

This approach not only helps learners develop a deeper understanding of new concepts but also fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills essential for real-world success.

Cognitive Learning Theory is all about understanding the mental processes that shape how we learn. Rather than focusing solely on observable behaviors, this theory dives into how learners process information, solve problems, and make sense of new ideas. It encourages us to consider how we think about our thinking—what experts often call “metacognition”—which can deepen comprehension and retention.

When you apply Cognitive Learning Theory to instructional design, the emphasis shifts to designing experiences that help learners organize, interpret, and connect new knowledge. Some common strategies include:

• Encouraging learners to reflect on their thought processes.
• Using concept maps or graphic organizers to visualize relationships.
• Breaking complex topics into smaller, manageable chunks.

By tapping into these mental strategies, instructional designers can create training that doesn’t just deliver information, but actually helps learners make meaning and build lasting understanding.

Behavioral learning theory is all about understanding how learners respond to their environment. Pioneered by figures like John B. Watson, this approach focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal thoughts or emotions. In essence, it explores what drives individuals to learn and how certain behaviors can be encouraged or discouraged through external factors.

At its core, behavioral theory emphasizes the role of reinforcement—rewarding positive actions to shape future behavior. For example, when learners receive praise or rewards for mastering a skill, they’re more likely to repeat those successful actions. This practical, results-driven mindset is often seen in classroom settings and training programs where immediate feedback is key.

Key concepts within behavioral learning include:

• Classical Conditioning: Learning occurs by linking a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one, helping learners make associations (think Pavlov’s dog).
• Operant Conditioning: Behavior is shaped by consequences—rewards encourage repetition, while negative results discourage it. B.F. Skinner’s experiments with rewards and punishments are classic examples.
• Observational Learning: Learners also pick up new behaviors by watching others, understanding which actions lead to positive or negative outcomes.

By applying behavioral learning theory, instructors can create targeted interventions that motivate, reinforce, and build effective learning habits.

Richard Mayer’s Principles of Multimedia Learning offer valuable guidance on how to design multimedia content that genuinely helps learners understand and retain information. Developed by Richard Mayer, these principles are based on extensive research in cognitive psychology and modern education.

At their core, Richard Mayer’s twelve principles help instructional designers craft lessons that avoid cognitive overload, focus attention, and make learning more effective. Each principle targets a specific aspect of how people process information presented through words and pictures.

Here’s a quick overview:

• Coherence Principle: Remove any extra material that doesn’t directly support learning goals, keeping content clear and focused.
• Signaling Principle: Use cues—like highlights or icons—to draw attention to key information.
• Redundancy Principle: Avoid presenting identical information through both text and narration at the same time, as this can overwhelm learners.
• Spatial Contiguity Principle: Place related text and images near each other so learners don’t have to search for connections.
• Temporal Contiguity Principle: Present corresponding verbal and visual materials simultaneously, not separately.
• Segmenting Principle: Break content into digestible chunks rather than delivering it all at once.
• Pre-training Principle: Introduce key concepts or vocabulary before diving into complex material.
• Modality Principle: Pair visuals with spoken words instead of on-screen text to make the most of how our brains process information.
• Multimedia Principle: Combine words and images to enhance understanding, rather than using words alone.
• Personalization Principle: Use a conversational tone to make learning more engaging and relatable.
• Voice Principle: Employ human voices for narrations instead of synthetic or robot-like speech.
• Image Principle: The speaker’s image isn’t always necessary during instruction—sometimes, less is more.

Applying these principles can transform your lessons, helping learners stay focused and making complex ideas easier to grasp. If you want to dive deeper into practical applications, our accompanying video breaks down each principle with clear examples and tips for instructional designers.

The Importance of Mayer’s Principles

Mayer’s Principles of Multimedia Learning provide a solid foundation for creating educational materials that truly engage and support your learners. By understanding how people process information—especially when combining words and visuals—you’ll be able to design lessons that are not just attractive, but genuinely effective.

Why does this matter for instructional designers? When you apply these principles, you’re helping learners focus on what’s essential, avoid information overload, and make meaningful connections between concepts. Whether you’re building a classroom workshop or an online module, these guidelines ensure that your content communicates clearly and maximizes retention.

For example, by using principles like coherence (removing unnecessary information), signaling (highlighting key points), and redundancy (avoiding repetitive narration and text), you make it easier for learners to absorb complex topics. When paired with the basics of visual design—contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity—you create a learning experience that’s well-organized, visually appealing, and anchored in cognitive science.

Simply put, Mayer’s Principles empower you to craft multimedia lessons that stick, making them a must-have in any instructional designer’s toolkit.

Alongside Mayer’s Principles of Multimedia Learning, there are four essential visual design principles that help make your learning materials clearer and more engaging:

• Contrast: Use contrasting colors, fonts, or sizes to make important information stand out and guide learner attention.
• Repetition: Repeat elements like headings, colors, and shapes to create consistency and reinforce your course’s structure.
• Alignment: Organize graphics and text so everything feels orderly and visually connected, making it easier for learners to follow along.
• Proximity: Group related items together so learners can easily see which concepts or visuals belong together.

Together, these principles ensure your course not only looks professional but also supports better comprehension and retention for your learners.

Before diving into individual learning theories, it’s helpful to understand the three foundational perspectives that shape instructional design: behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist.

• Behavioral: This approach focuses on observable changes in behavior. Rooted in research by B.F. Skinner and other behaviorist psychologists, it emphasizes reinforcement, repetition, and clear objectives to guide learners toward desired outcomes. If you’ve ever built a lesson around drills or practice problems, you’ve drawn from this body of knowledge.

• Cognitive: Here, the emphasis shifts from external behaviors to internal processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving. Influenced by theorists like Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, cognitive approaches help learners make sense of information, organize their thoughts, and understand the “why” behind the “what.” Strategies such as concept mapping and chunking information stem from this tradition.

• Constructivist: This perspective holds that learners construct their own understanding through experience and reflection. Inspired by theorists such as Lev Vygotsky and John Dewey, it prioritizes exploration, hands-on activities, and connecting new knowledge to real-life situations. Group projects, simulations, and case studies are classic examples.

Understanding these three perspectives will help you better evaluate which learning theory—or blend of theories—best suits your teaching context. With this foundation in mind, let’s take a closer look at some of the most widely used models in instructional design.

Inquiry-Based Learning is a powerful, student-centered approach rooted in the work of educational pioneer John Dewey. At its core, this theory invites learners to actively investigate topics, ask thoughtful questions, and build knowledge by making meaningful connections to the real world.

There are several ways inquiry-based learning can take shape in a classroom or online session, including:

• Confirmation Inquiry: Learners confirm a principle through provided procedures.
• Structured Inquiry: Learners follow a teacher’s lead but draw their own conclusions.
• Guided Inquiry: Learners investigate a problem with some guidance but shape their own process.
• Open Inquiry: Learners take the lead, posing their own questions and designing their own investigations.

Inquiry-based learning typically features:

• A focus on the process of asking and investigating questions
• Hands-on exploration and problem-solving
• Collaboration through group work
• Thoughtful discussions guided by the instructor
• Application of knowledge to authentic, real-life situations

Cognitive Apprenticeship is a teaching model that highlights the value of learning alongside an expert—much like a traditional apprenticeship but with a focus on cognitive skills. Developed by Allan Collins and John Seely Brown, this approach brings classroom learning into real-world situations, where learners observe, practice, and gradually master new skills under the guidance of an experienced mentor.

This model centers on six core teaching methods:

• Modeling: The expert demonstrates a task or process, making their thinking visible to learners.
• Coaching: The expert provides feedback and guidance as the learner attempts the task.
• Scaffolding: Support structures are put in place to help learners succeed, which are gradually removed as confidence grows.
• Articulation: Learners are encouraged to explain their understanding and reasoning.
• Reflection: Learners review and assess their performance to deepen understanding.
• Exploration: Learners are given opportunities to try out ideas and solutions independently, building autonomy over time.

Cognitive Apprenticeship is especially useful for teaching problem-solving and critical-thinking skills in authentic settings, ensuring learners build both competence and confidence.

Connectivism is a contemporary learning theory that addresses how we learn in our increasingly digital, networked world. Unlike traditional models that focus solely on individual knowledge, connectivism highlights the power of connecting with external sources—like online courses, social media, books, and even fellow learners. It recognizes that learning doesn’t just happen inside our brains but through our participation in these vast networks and information streams.

This approach is especially relevant today, as we rely more on our devices and global communities to find, share, and construct knowledge. By fostering connections across platforms and people, connectivism empowers us to stay current and adapt in a rapidly changing world.

Social Learning Theory explains how people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating others. Developed by psychologist Albert Bandura, this approach shows that much of what we pick up—especially in group or social settings—comes from watching those around us and mimicking what works.

To better understand how Social Learning Theory unfolds in practice, let’s look at its key steps:

• Observation: Learners watch the actions of others—whether that’s a teacher, peer, or role model.
• Attention: To learn effectively, individuals need to focus on the behavior being modeled.
• Retention: Remembering what was observed is crucial so that the behavior can be recalled later.
• Reproduction: The learner tries out the new behavior themselves, putting what they observed into practice.
• Motivation: There needs to be a reason or incentive to imitate the behavior—often because the learner has seen someone else rewarded or benefited.

Social Learning Theory is frequently used in collaborative classrooms, workplace training, and even digital environments where peer learning and examples drive engagement.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding work hand-in-hand to help learners stretch just beyond what they can do on their own, unlocking new skills with a little guidance.

The ZPD, introduced by Lev Vygotsky, describes the sweet spot where learners can tackle challenges that are just out of reach—with a bit of support. Think of it as the Goldilocks zone for learning: not too easy, not too hard, but just right for growth.

Scaffolding comes into play as the temporary support or guidance provided by a teacher, mentor, or even a knowledgeable peer. This support might look like hints, prompts, modeling, or breaking down tasks into smaller steps. As the learner gains confidence and skill, the support gradually fades away—just like removing a scaffold from a building once it’s strong enough to stand on its own.

By combining ZPD and scaffolding, educators can help learners build on what they already know, tackle more complex ideas, and develop independence over time.

Elaboration Theory

Elaboration Theory is a model that focuses on how to help learners develop a deeper understanding of new concepts.

Andragogy focuses on how adults learn and is rooted in the influential work of Malcolm Knowles. Unlike traditional approaches that center on teaching children, andragogy recognizes that adult learners bring unique needs and experiences to the table.

According to Knowles, adults tend to:

• Value autonomy and prefer self-directed learning opportunities.
• Draw upon a rich background of life and work experiences, which shapes their learning process.
• Engage best with learning that is immediately relevant to their personal or professional lives.
• Are motivated to learn by internal factors such as curiosity, self-improvement, and job satisfaction.
• Approach new topics with a readiness that is often linked to real-world challenges or changes in their roles.

Understanding these assumptions helps instructional designers create more meaningful and impactful learning experiences specifically tailored for adults.

Backward Design is a learner-centered approach to instructional planning that starts with the end in mind. Developed by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, this method encourages educators to focus first on what they want students to achieve by the end of the learning experience.

Here’s how the Backward Design process unfolds:

• Clarify Learning Goals: Begin by establishing what knowledge, skills, or understanding you want your learners to walk away with. Ask yourself: What should students know or be able to do at the end?
• Determine Assessment Methods: Next, decide how you’ll measure whether those learning goals have been met. This involves identifying the evidence or criteria that will show if learners have reached the desired outcomes, such as tests, projects, or practical demonstrations.
• Plan Instructional Activities: With goals and assessments clearly defined, you then design activities, lessons, and experiences that will guide learners to success. This ensures that every step along the way is purposeful and aligned with your intended outcomes.

By working backward from the destination, this model helps you create more focused, effective, and meaningful learning experiences for your audience.

The Kirkpatrick Model of Training Evaluation

The Kirkpatrick Model is a widely recognized framework for evaluating the effectiveness of training programs, developed by Donald Kirkpatrick. It breaks down the evaluation process into four distinct levels, allowing educators and instructional designers to assess both immediate and long-term impacts of their training efforts.

• Level 1: Reaction
  This stage gauges how participants feel about the training—were they engaged, interested, and satisfied with the content and delivery?

• Level 2: Learning
  Here, the focus is on what participants have actually learned. Did the training increase their knowledge, skills, or attitudes as intended?

• Level 3: Behavior
  At this level, you assess if participants are applying what they’ve learned once they’re back on the job or in real-world situations.

• Level 4: Results
  Finally, this stage examines the ultimate impact of the training. Has there been measurable improvement in performance, productivity, or other outcomes relevant to organizational goals?

When integrated thoughtfully, the Kirkpatrick Model helps ensure your instructional approach not only resonates with learners but also delivers tangible results in performance and achievement.

Jean Piaget‘s Stages of Cognitive Development describe how children actively construct their understanding of the world as they grow. According to Piaget, learning unfolds as children progress through four key stages:

• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth–2 years): Infants learn primarily through exploring with their senses and moving around. During this phase, they begin to understand object permanence—the idea that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
• Preoperational Stage (2–7 years): At this stage, children start to use language and think symbolically. Their thinking is still quite egocentric, and they often struggle to see things from perspectives other than their own.
• Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years): Children in this phase develop logical thinking skills. They can now understand concepts like conservation (knowing that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance) and organize information systematically.
• Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up): Adolescents become capable of abstract thought and can reason about hypothetical situations. Problem-solving becomes more sophisticated, allowing for deductive logic and systematic planning.

Piaget’s framework helps educators recognize the natural progression of cognitive abilities—enabling lessons to be tailored, so learners build on what they’re ready to understand.

Anchored Instruction Mode is a teaching approach that centers learning around engaging, real-world scenarios—often called “anchors.” These anchors might be a case study, problem, or story that provides a meaningful context for students to explore and solve. Originally developed by John Bransford and colleagues, this method uses technology and multimedia to present students with complex, authentic situations.

The key to anchored instruction is that learners are not just passive recipients—they actively collaborate, discuss, and problem-solve as a group. This hands-on method helps students connect new concepts to real-life situations, making the learning process both practical and memorable. By focusing on group work and anchored tasks, this approach encourages critical thinking and teamwork, ultimately fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

If you’ve been working with the traditional ADDIE model, you might find the Successive Approximation Model (SAM) a refreshing alternative. Developed by Michael Allen, SAM was designed as a more flexible, iterative approach to instructional design—perfect for environments where feedback and rapid prototyping are essential.

So, what sets SAM apart from ADDIE?
While ADDIE follows a linear process—moving step by step from analysis to evaluation—SAM takes a cyclical approach that encourages early and ongoing collaboration. It’s all about refining ideas through quick prototypes and regular feedback, rather than waiting until the end to make adjustments. This not only speeds up development but also ensures the final product is more closely aligned with learners’ needs and organizational goals.

SAM is broken down into three key phases:

• Preparation: Define goals, gather basic requirements, and assemble your team.
• Iterative Design: Quickly create, test, and tweak prototypes, encouraging stakeholder input at every step.
• Iterative Development: Build the final product using insights gained from the design cycles, always making room for further feedback and improvements.

This model is especially popular in tech-driven industries, where rapid change is the norm and there’s little time for lengthy, rigid processes. If you want a more dynamic and collaborative experience for both designers and learners, SAM just might be your model of choice.

To learn more about SAM, visit our interactive page on the site.

The ASSURE Model offers a practical blueprint for weaving technology and multimedia into your lessons in a purposeful way. Developed by Heinrich and Molenda, it serves as a step-by-step guide to designing instruction that leverages digital tools while keeping the learner front and center.

Here’s how the ASSURE Model supports effective instructional design:

• Analyze Learners: Start by understanding who your learners are—their backgrounds, prior knowledge, and learning preferences. This shapes every choice you make thereafter.
• State Goals and Objectives: Clearly define what you want your learners to achieve. Well-crafted objectives set the direction for lesson planning.
• Select Methods and Media: Choose teaching strategies, technology, and resources that align with your objectives and audience. Whether it’s interactive platforms, videos, or hands-on activities, making intentional selections keeps lessons engaging.
• Utilize Media and Technology: This stage focuses on the actual implementation of selected tools—ensuring everything functions smoothly and genuinely supports learning outcomes.
• Require Learner Participation: Interactive elements are key. The model encourages designing activities that get students actively involved, whether through discussions, simulations, or collaborative projects.
• Evaluate and Revise: Finally, assess both the effectiveness of your instruction and the technology used. Based on feedback and outcomes, refine and improve your approach for next time.

This structured yet flexible framework helps ensure that technology isn’t just an add-on, but a thoughtfully integrated part of the learning journey.

The Knirk and Gustafson Model emphasizes that learners build new understanding by connecting fresh information to what they already know. Instead of simply absorbing facts, students become active participants in their own learning journey. This model unfolds in three key stages: identifying the problem, designing a learning strategy, and developing the actual solution or instruction.

By focusing first on real-world problems, the model ensures that learning is relevant and meaningful. Learners are encouraged to explore, ask questions, and draw on their prior experiences as they design solutions—supporting deeper engagement. As the process moves into development, students test ideas and refine their understanding, allowing them to truly “own” their knowledge. In classrooms or training environments, this means that instruction is tailored, interactive, and designed to help learners actively construct and apply what they learn.

The Dick and Carey Model is a widely recognized framework that breaks down the instructional design process into clear, systematic steps. Unlike models that focus solely on either the instructor or the learner, Dick and Carey emphasize how each element—goals, materials, assessments, and interactions—works together to support effective learning.

Here’s a quick overview of the steps involved in the Dick and Carey Model:

• Define your instructional goals: Clarify exactly what you want your learners to achieve.
• Analyze tasks and content: Break down the knowledge and skills required to meet those goals.
• Profile your learners and learning contexts: Understand your learners’ backgrounds and the environments in which learning will take place.
• Set performance objectives: Create measurable statements that specify what learners should be able to do by the end.
• Develop assessment instruments: Design tools to check whether learners meet the objectives.
• Craft instructional strategies: Plan the teaching methods and activities you’ll use.
• Prepare instructional materials: Develop and select the resources and content your lessons require.
• Conduct formative evaluations: Test your instruction in its early stages and make adjustments based on feedback.
• Conduct summative evaluations: Finally, evaluate the whole instructional program to determine its effectiveness.

By following these steps, you ensure every piece of your course or lesson aligns and contributes to real, measurable learning outcomes.

The Knirk and Gustafson Model is another foundational approach in instructional design that emphasizes building new understanding by connecting fresh information to what learners already know. At its core, this model recognizes the importance of active engagement—encouraging learners to construct their own knowledge rather than passively receive content.

The process unfolds in three straightforward stages:

• Problem Determination: Begin by clearly identifying the problem or learning need to be addressed.
• Design: Next, map out the instructional strategy and select appropriate methods and materials that align with learner needs and objectives.
• Development: Finally, create and assemble the instructional materials, readying them for implementation.

This practical, learner-centered framework helps instructors guide their students through meaningful learning experiences that stick.

The Kemp Design Model stands out for its flexible and adaptable approach to instructional design. Unlike linear models, Kemp’s framework is circular—meaning you can begin at any point in the process according to your needs and context. This allows instructors and designers to tailor their workflow, starting with learner analysis, instructional objectives, or even media selection, depending on the project’s unique demands.

This model breaks the instructional design process into nine key areas, but rather than insisting on a fixed order, it invites you to jump in wherever it makes sense for your situation. For example, you might start by identifying your learners and their needs, or by clarifying the instructional problem first. From there, you can:

• Define SMART objectives that make outcomes clear and measurable
• Organize and sequence content in a way that best serves your learners
• Select the most effective instructional strategies and delivery methods
• Integrate various media types that enhance engagement and accessibility
• Continually evaluate and refine your instruction, using both formative and summative assessments

By giving you the freedom to revisit and revise each stage as your program evolves, the Kemp Design Model makes it easier to adapt to changing requirements, accommodate different learning styles, and craft instructional experiences that truly resonate.

The Hannafin–Peck Model is another valuable framework for instructional designers who want to emphasize continuous improvement. What makes this model stand out is its built-in cycle of evaluation and revision throughout all stages of the instructional design process. Rather than treating assessment as an afterthought, Hannafin–Peck encourages you to consistently reflect on and refine your work—ensuring your instruction is always evolving and adapting to learners’ needs.

The model unfolds over three core phases:

• Needs Assessment: You begin by identifying what learners need and any gaps or challenges in the current approach.
• Design: Next, you map out your instructional strategy, keeping flexibility in mind so adjustments are always possible.
• Development & Implementation: Here, the magic happens—content is created, delivered, and, crucially, evaluated. Feedback and data are used right away to make tweaks or improvements, fostering a culture of ongoing enhancement rather than waiting for a course “post-mortem.”

This continuous loop means you’re never locked into an approach that isn’t working. Like keeping a lesson plan editable in real-time, the Hannafin–Peck Model keeps your learning experiences fresh, relevant, and responsive to feedback.

Gerlach-Ely Model

The Gerlach-Ely Model is another well-known instructional design framework that centers on systematic planning for teaching and training. Developed by Vernon S. Gerlach and Donald P. Ely, this model helps educators clearly define what they want learners to achieve and maps out the steps required to get there. Like ADDIE, Gerlach-Ely moves through a cycle of stages, ensuring a thorough and organized approach—but it’s visualized more as a continuous loop than a strict sequence.

At its core, the Gerlach-Ely Model is built around ten key components:

• Content specification: Determining what content will be covered.
• Objectives specification: Setting clear, measurable goals for what learners should accomplish.
• Assessment of entering behaviors: Identifying what learners already know before instruction begins.
• Determining strategy: Selecting instructional methods and activities.
• Organizing groups: Deciding how learners will interact—individually, in pairs, or teams.
• Allocating time: Scheduling how much time will be devoted to each part of the lesson.
• Allocating space: Arranging the physical or virtual learning environment.
• Selecting resources: Choosing materials, tools, and media to support learning.
• Performance evaluation: Measuring learner progress and success.
• Feedback analysis: Reflecting on results and using feedback to make improvements.

This model is popular among instructional designers who want a practical, step-by-step process for developing effective lessons—especially when working in environments that value structure and clarity.

The Organizational Elements Model, introduced by Roger Kaufman, offers a practical approach for evaluating how organizations function and where they can improve. By breaking down an organization’s means (such as resources and processes) and its ends (the products, services, and value delivered), this model helps leaders see the bigger picture.

With OEM, you can:

• Assess what your organization uses (inputs), what it does (processes), and what it produces (outputs).
• Examine the results delivered to external stakeholders, like customers and the community.
• Compare your company’s strengths and weaknesses with competitors.

By walking through these components, it becomes much easier to spot gaps and inefficiencies, figure out which processes are most effective, and uncover root causes of organizational challenges. OEM is a valuable tool not just for internal improvement but also for staying competitive in the marketplace.